Topic Study

Books, Bibles, Scriptures, and Writings

The Hebrew word סֵפֶר sepher (H5612) means “to record” and was concretely represented as a scroll. At its core, סֵפֶר sepher was a document or record written on a sheet of skin or papyrus and rolled up (i.e. a scroll) and later became known as a “book” (cf. Genesis 5:1; Exodus 17:14; Exodus 24:7; Exodus 32:32-33; Numbers 5:23; Numbers 21:14; Deuteronomy 17:18; Deuteronomy 24:1 – bill = סֵפֶר sepher; Joshua 10:13; 1 Samuel 1:18; 2 Samuel 11:14-15 – letter = סֵפֶר sepher; 1 Kings 11:41; 1 Kings 14:19; Daniel 9:2). סֵפֶר sepher is equivalent to the Greek word βιβλίον biblion (G975) which means “book” and further defined as a small book, scroll, or written document or a sheet on which something has been written (cf. Matthew 19:7 writing or bill = βιβλίον biblion; Luke 4:17; John 20:30; John 21:25; 2 Timothy 4:13; Hebrews 9:19; Hebrews 10:7; Revelation 22:7; Revelation 22:18; Revelation 22:19)

Interestingly, the word “Scripture” in the famous verse “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, reproof, for setting straight, for instruction in righteousness, that each person who belongs to God may be complete, thoroughly equipped for every good work” (2 Timothy 3:16-17) is γραφή graphē (G1124) which means “a writing or thing written.” In the Apostolic Scriptures, γραφή graphē always refers to the Scripture (Torah, Prophets, and Writings as known by those who lived during the first century A.D. along with the letters and writings of the Apostles), used to denote either the book itself, or its contents (cf. Matthew 21:42; Luke 24:27; John 10:35; Acts 17:2; James 2:8; 2 Peter 1:20; 2 Peter 3:16). γραφή graphē is equivalent to the Hebrew word מִכְתָּב mikhtav (H4385) which means “to write” and is something written and as well as the act of writing (Exodus 32:16; Exodus 39:30; Deuteronomy 10:4; Isaiah 38:9; 2 Chronicles 21:12).

“Apocrypha” or “Pseudepigrapha”

The following books are sometimes erroneously called “Apocrypha” or “Pseudepigrapha” to cast much doubt on the authenticity of the works. Apocrypha literally means “to hide away” and is defined as being of “doubtful authenticity, although widely circulated as being true.” The term pseudepigrapha comes from the Greek pseudo, meaning “false,” and epigraphein, meaning “to inscribe,” thus, “false writings.” Since you may find yourself using these terms, it’s good to know what they mean.

The descriptions of these additional books below show they were likely widely used due to the fact that most were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls in the caves at Qumran and originally written in Hebrew, not Greek as commonly told.

This is not an exhaustive list of books and writings considered “Apocrypha,” “Pseudepigrapha,” or “lost books of the Bible.” However, at The Cord, we’ve set a standard to only use, to the best of our ability, writings found among the Dead Sea Scrolls since they can be verified as existing and used before the Hebrew Bible or Christian Bible was canonized by men.

We endeavor to add to this list as we study more writings uncovered at the Dead Sea  Scrolls.

The Book of Jubilees. Between 1947 and 1956 approximately 15 Jubilees scrolls were found in five caves at Qumran, all written in Hebrew. The large number of manuscripts (more than for any biblical books except for Psalms, Deuteronomy, Isaiah, Exodus, and Genesis, in descending order) indicates that Jubilees was widely used at Qumran. A comparison of the Qumran texts with the Ethiopic version, performed by James VanderKam, found that the Ethiopic was in most respects an accurate and literalistic translation. Scholars have dated Jubilees to have been written sometime around 160-150 B.C.

The Book of Enoch (also known as 1 Enoch) was written during the second century B.C. The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) of the text are estimated to date from about 300–200 B.C., and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably to 100 B.C. Various Aramaic fragments found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, as well as Koine Greek and Latin fragments, were proof that The Book of Enoch was known by early Jews and Christians.

Sirach, or Wisdom of Sirach, and also known as the Book of Ecclesiasticus (abbreviated Ecclus.) or Sirach, is a work of ethical teachings, from approximately 200 to 175 B.C., written by the Jewish scribe Sirach of Jerusalem, on the inspiration of his father Joshua son of Sirach, sometimes called Jesus son of Sirach or Yeshua ben Eliezer Sirach. The Sirach was almost completely uncovered in Hebrew in the Dead Sea Scrolls, at Masada, and the Cairo Geniza. The multiplicity of manuscript fragments uncovered in the Cairo Genizah evidence its authoritative status among Egyptian Jewry until the Middle Ages. Quotes from Sirach can be found in Rabbinic literature in multiple places including the Talmud in Bava Kamma 92b:13 and Hagigah 13a:2. Additionally, the Gospels and other Apostolic Scriptures quote from the Book of Sirach including the Song of Miriam in Luke 1:52 (cf. Sirach 10:14); the description of the seed in Mark 4:5, 16–17 (cf. Sirach 40:15); the statement by Yeshua in Matthew 7:16,20 (cf. Sirach 27:6); and James 1:19 (cf. Sirach 5:11).

The Additions to Daniel (also called Greek Daniel) comprise three chapters not found in the Hebrew/Aramaic text of Daniel. The text of these chapters is found in the Koine Greek Septuagint, the earliest Old Greek translation. In the third century A.D., these additions were accepted as Scripture by all extant Christian writers except Jerome. They are accepted as canonical and translated as such in Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Syriac Bibles. They are listed in Article VI of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England. However, most Protestant Bibles exclude these passages as biblical apocrypha, retaining only the text available today in the Hebrew/Aramaic manuscripts.

The Wisdom of Solomon, or Book of Wisdom, is a Jewish work, written in Greek, and most likely composed in Alexandria, Egypt. Generally dated to the mid first century B.C. It is uncertain whether the book has a single author or comes from a school of writers, but recent scholarship has favored regarding it as a unified work. Fragments of the Wisdom of Solomon were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls in the first discovered and excavated cave at Qumran in 1949.

The Prayer of Manasseh is a short work of 15 verses recording a penitential prayer attributed to king Manasseh of Judah. The majority of scholars believe that the Prayer of Manasseh was written, in Greek, in the first or second century B.C. Another work by the same title, written in Hebrew and containing distinctly different content, was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.

1 and 2 Maccabees are set during the reign of the Seleucid Greek empire (the part of the Greek empire that found its roots in Syria). It tells the story of how the Greek ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes attempted to suppress Temple worship and to destroy the practice of Jewish law. This caused the Maccabean revolt, led by Mattathias and his sons. As a part of the revolt, the Temple was freed from the control of the Greek empire and rededicated (an act that is still commemorated yearly in the festival of Hanukkah). The Maccabees then ruled over Israel, first as High Priests and then as High Priests and Princes of Israel.

1 Maccabees follows this story until the death of Simon (the third son of Mattathias to rule over Israel) at the hands of the Egyptian Greeks (from about 175-134 B.C.).

2 Maccabees recaps some of the story (until the events of 161 B.C.) and adds in details about God’s intervention into the events reports. 2 Maccabees, the first work to pose an opposition between Judaism and Hellenism, sees Hellenism as a new kind of threat in Jewish history. Previously, foreign cultures were perceived as dangerous because of the temptation posed by their gods. But for 2 Maccabees, Hellenism involves a system of values distinct from idolatry, the values associated with the gymnasium. 2 Maccabees condemns Jews who adopt these values even as they remain loyal to the God of Israel.

The title of 3 Maccabees is curious because the book has nothing to do with the Maccabees (who are never mentioned in it). The principal feature that it shares with 1-2 Maccabees is that it is a story about a situation in which the Jewish people, this time in Egypt, were in danger of being annihilated by a Hellenistic monarch, in part for their religious convictions and practices. The book was composed in Greek and relates a story set in the time of Ptolemy IV Philopater (221-203 B.C.).

The Letter of Jeremiah, also known as the Epistle of Jeremiah, is included in Catholic Bibles as the final chapter of the Book of Baruch. It is also included in Orthodox Bibles as a standalone book. Some scholars claim that the title of this work is misleading, as they consider it to be neither a letter nor written by the prophet Jeremiah. The date of this work is uncertain. Most scholars agree that it is dependent on certain biblical passages, notably Isaiah 44:9–20, 46:5–7, and thus can be no earlier than 540 B.C. Since a fragment (7Q2) was identified among the scrolls in Qumran Cave 7, it can be no later than 100 B.C.

The Book of Baruch is named after Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah’s well-known scribe, who is mentioned at Baruch 1:1, and has been presumed to be the author of the whole work. Although not in the Hebrew Bible, it is found in the Septuagint, in the Eritrean/Ethiopian Orthodox Bible, and the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Russian Orthodox Churches. In some Bibles, Baruch chapter 6 is listed as a separate book called The Letter of Jeremiah, reflecting its separation from Baruch in some copies of the Greek Septuagint. Some scholars propose that it was written during or shortly after the period of the Maccabees. Although the earliest known manuscripts of Baruch are in Greek, linguistic features of the first parts of Baruch (1:1-3:8) have been proposed as indicating a translation from a Semitic language.

2 Esdras, consisting of chapters 3-14, (also called 4 Esdras, Latin Esdras, or Latin Ezra) is the name of a book in many English versions of the Bible. Its authorship is ascribed to Ezra, a scribe and priest of the 5th century B.C., although modern scholarship places its composition between 70 and 218 A.D.. It is reckoned among the apocrypha by Roman Catholics, Protestants, and most Eastern Orthodox Christians. The Ethiopian Church considers 4 Ezra to be canonical, written during the Babylonian captivity, and calls it “Izra Sutuel” (ዕዝራ ሱቱኤል). It was also often cited by the Fathers of the Church. In the Eastern Armenian tradition it is called 3 Ezra.

Tobit, also called The Book of Tobias, found its way into the Roman Catholic canon via the Septuagint. Before the 1952 discovery of Aramaic and Hebrew fragments of Tobit among the Dead Sea Scrolls in a cave at Qumran, scholars believed Tobit was not included in the Jewish canon because of late authorship, estimated to 100 A.D.. Qumran fragments of the text, which were copied between 100 B.C. to 25 A.D., evidence a much earlier origin than previously thought. These fragments evidence authorship no later than the 2nd century B.C. and, likely, contemporary with the date ascribed, by modern scholars, to the final compilation of the Book of Daniel, which did attain canonical status.

The Temple Scroll is the longest of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Among the discoveries at Qumran it is designated: 11QTemple Scroll. It describes a Jewish temple which was never built, along with extensive detailed regulations about slaughters and temple practices. There is no scholarly consensus regarding the date, origin, author or authors, or its relationship to the Qumran community.[4] Some scholars attribute the Temple Scroll to the isolated Qumran community, while others see no connection with the Qumran community; instead they see the work as a priestly (possible Zadokite) document that was hidden in a cave by Zealots during their flight from Jerusalem in 70 A.D. before the Roman destruction of the Temple.

The Book of Judith relates the story of God’s deliverance of the Jewish people. This was accomplished “by the hand of a female”—a constant motif meant to recall the “hand” of God in the Exodus narrative. The work may have been written around 100 B.C., but its historical range is extraordinary.

The Damascus Document, also called the Damascus Covenant or the Book of the Covenant of Damascus,[1] Cairo Damascus document (CD) or Damascus Rule, is an ancient Jewish document that some scholars suggest serves as a “bridge” document, connecting Judaism’s post-exilic ‘Enochian’-Essene majority to the asserted leadership of its radical minority Qumran-Essene community that was established in isolation near the shores of the Dead Sea. It forms part of the Dead Sea Scrolls, found after 1947 near Qumran, but two fragments had already been discovered in 1897 in the Cairo Geniza.

The Genesis Apocryphon (1Q20), also called the Tales of the Patriarchs or the Apocalypse of Lamech and labeled 1QapGen, is one of the original seven Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in 1946 by Bedouin shepherds in Cave 1 near Qumran, a city in the northwest corner of the Dead Sea. Composed in Aramaic, it consists of four sheets of leather. Furthermore, it is the least well-preserved document of the original seven. The document records a conversation between the biblical figure Lamech, son of Methuselah, and his son, Noah, as well as first and third person narratives associated with Abraham. A range of compositional dates for the work have been suggested from the 3rd century B.C. to 1st century A.D..

Composed in Talmudic Israel (c.150 – c.250 A.D.), the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan is a western targum (translation) of the Torah (Pentateuch) from the land of Israel (as opposed to the eastern Babylonian Targum Onkelos). Its correct title was originally Targum Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Targum), which is how it was known in medieval times. But because of a printer’s mistake it was later labeled Targum Jonathan, in reference to Jonathan ben Uzziel. Some editions of the Pentateuch continue to call it Targum Jonathan to this day. Most scholars refer to the text as Targum Pseudo-Jonathan. This targum is more than a mere translation. It includes much Aggadic material collected from various sources as late as the Midrash Rabbah as well as earlier material from the Talmud. It is effectively a combination of a commentary and a translation. In the portions where it is pure translation, it often agrees with the Targum Onkelos. The date of its composition is disputed. It cannot have been completed before the Arabic conquest as it refers to Mohammad’s woman Fatimah, but might have been initially composed in the 4th Century A.D.. However, some scholars date it in the 14th Century.

The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

2 Baruch is also known as the Apocalypse of Baruch or the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (used to distinguish it from the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch). The Apocalypse proper occupies the first 77 chapters of the book. Chapters 78–87 are usually referred to as the Letter of Baruch to the Nine and a Half Tribes. 2 Baruch is thought to have been written in the late 1st century A.D. or early 2nd century A.D., after the destruction of the Temple in A.D. 70. It is attributed to the biblical Baruch and so is associated with the Old Testament. It is included in some editions of the Peshitta, and is part of the Bible in the Syriac Orthodox tradition.